However, most medical studies have pointed out that their development may involve a combination of genetic, environmental, psychological, and developmental factors
A 2013 study in the journal Tobacco Control found that the harmful chemicals in e-cigarettes occurred at levels 9 to 450 times lower than in regular cigarette smoke
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Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil
Even in 2026, tobacco taxes and levies remain high, leading to further price increases in retail
Causes and Risk Factors Most Common Cause: Cigarette smoking (primary) Other Risk Factors: Biomass fuel exposure Air pollution Occupational dust/fumes Recurrent lung infections Aging Genetic Cause: Alpha-1 Antitrypsin deficiency (early-onset emphysema, especially in non-smokers) Pathophysiology (Simplified) Smoking or irritants inflammation elastase and proteases Loss of elastic recoil and destruction of alveolar walls Enlarged airspaces gas exchange surface Air trapping hyperinflation Types of Emphysema (based on lobes affected) 1
